2013년 12월 4일 수요일

About 'national louis university reviews'|... actually impact players and coaches working in the league Reviews and expectations are mixed. According to the interpretation...







About 'national louis university reviews'|... actually impact players and coaches working in the league Reviews and expectations are mixed. According to the interpretation...








"The               victim               of               the               Lost               Cause               legend               has               been               history,               for               which               the               legend               has               been               substituted               in               the               national               memory."               -               Alan               T.

Nolan[i]               Forward
               The               "Lost               Cause"               is               the               nomenclature               for               the               literary               and               historical               movement               that               glorified               the               traditional               society               of               the               South,               reconciling               it               to               the               defeat               of               the               Confederacy               in               the               American               Civil               War.

The               Lost               Cause               portrayal               was               of               a               traditional               society               peopled               by               heroic               men               of               chivalry               and               nobility               who               posessed               superior               martial               skills.

The               Union               won               only               through               the               use               of               a               vastly               larger               force               and               manufacturing               capability               -               not               because               they               were               better               men.

It               was               wistful               and               wishful               salve               that               took               some               of               the               sting               out               of               the               loss               of               the               Old               Order.
               The               inevitability               of               the               rise               of               the               Lost               Cause               as               the               Southern               interpretation               of               the               "War               of               Secession"               seems               somehow               logical               140               years               after               the               War,               and               even               the               school               of               historiography               that               sprang               up               to               codify               the               primary               collective               memory               of               the               Civil               War               in               the               South               can               be               grasped.

But               the               national               adoption               of               the               Lost               Cause               in               the               public               consciousness               needs               further               examination               because               of               the               long-term               effects               it               had               on               all               Americans               and               the               subjugation               of               African               Americans               in               the               South.

The               subsequent               debunking               by               "revisionist"               historians               of               the               "myths"               involved               in               the               Southern               story               starting               in               the               late               1930's               can               be               seen               as               at               least               partially               precipitated               by               the               national               soul-searching               following               WWI.

Finally,               "myths"               from               both               sides               will               be               examined               to               see               of               there               can               be               a               national               consensus               regarding               the               writing               of               Civil               War               History.

There               is               a               great               deal               of               literature               on               the               Lost               Cause,               and               necessarily               only               a               few               historians               and               the               major               schools               of               thought               will               be               compared               and               contrasted.
               In               the               50th               year               of               its               publication,               in               2004,               the               journal               Civil               War               History               published               a               piece               by               its               editor               William               Blair,               of               Penn               State               University,               who               noted:               "the               last               fifty               years               have               brought               a               shift               from               top-down               approaches               to               greater               emphasis               on               the               lives               of               common               people."[ii]               The               use               of               letters               and               oral               tradition               by               historians               is               increasingly               popular               and               certainly               is               no               surprise               given               modern               historical               techniques,               but               he               then               went               on               to               mention               the               most               important               generational               historiographical               change               in               Civil               War               studies:               "During               the               life               of               this               journal,               slavery               has               been               restored               by               historians               as               the               central               cause               of               the               Civil               War,               and               the               Radical               [Republicans]               have               gone               from               villains               to               heroes".[iii]
               Additionally,               political               history,               as               it               relates               to               the               Civil               War,               almost               abandoned               in               the               1960's               came               back               starting               in               the               1980's               with               Michael               Perman's               The               Road               to               Redemption,               and               a               number               of               other               books               that               explore               politics               through               more               modern               eyes.

Current               historians               look               to               discover               patterns               and               trends               across               the               whole               of               the               South,               considering               Reconstruction               within               the               broader               context               of               Southern               and               Northern               political               history.
               Winning               for               Losing
               The               North               won               the               United               States               Civil               War               -               of               that               there               can               be               no               doubt.

The               South               was               economically               destroyed               and               much               of               their               male               generation               was               lost.

Yet               there               is               a               compelling               argument               to               be               made               that               much               of               the               social               fabric               of               the               South               remained               un-tattered.

The               historical               record               shows               that               slavery,               the               reason               most               generally               accepted               for               the               Union's               prosecution               of               the               war,               had               indeed               been               done               away               with.

Lincoln's               Emancipation               Proclamation               created               freedmen               of               the               former               slaves               and               three               constitutional               amendments               guaranteed               the               life,               liberty,               and               citizenship               rights               of               Blacks.

The               Republican               governments               set               up               in               the               defeated               Southern               states               during               the               period               of               Reconstruction               created               heretofore               unseen               opportunity               for               black               participation               at               the               highest               levels               of               government.

However               the               window               of               opportunity               was               brief               indeed.

The               "Compromise               of               1877"               created               enough               of               a               voting               block               to               elect               Republican               President               Rutherford               B.

Hayes               but               removed               Federal               troops               from               the               South,               abandoning               the               former               slaves               to               their               individual               fates.

White               southerners               rose               up               to               retake               their               cultural               heritage.

The               most               virulent               and               horrifying               example               was               the               Ku               Klux               Klan,               which               exercised               a               reign               of               terror               unchecked               for               a               period,               and               even               after               its               back               had               been               broken               it               remained               a               powerful               reminder               of               the               ever-present               likelihood               of               vigilante               justice               through               lynch-law.
               Reconstruction               could               have               continued               to               succeed               by               force               or               arms,               but               there               was               simply               no               national               political               will               that               could               have               been               brought               to               bear               to               sustain               it.

Congressional               and               presidential               elections               in               the               period               were               fought               on               the               narrowest               of               margins               and               required               strange               partnerships.

It               was               increasingly               unlikely               that               any               strong               federal               intervention               would               occur               again               at               the               individual               state               level               in               the               South.

While               there               were               still               pockets               of               Republicans               holding               out               in               state               legislatures,               the               Redeemers               were               able               to               consolidate               their               power               and               vote               their               platform               into               law.

And               so               a               dozen               years               after               the               war,               the               failure               of               Reconstruction               allowed               for               state-enacted               "Jim               Crow"               laws               in               Southern               states.

Southern               power               was               once               again               firmly               in               the               grasp               of               whites               and               Jim               Crow               guaranteed               white               supremacy               and               a               future               of               separate               and               unequal               treatment               as               well               as               voting               disenfranchisement               for               blacks.
               This               is               critically               important               to               the               Lost               Cause               theory               as               it               grew               parallel               to               and               in               many               ways               in               lock               step               with               new               systems               of               politics,               class,               and               race               relations               being               created               in               the               last               decades               of               the               19th               century.

The               rush               to               put               black               freemen               in               their               place               was               all               the               more               critical               now               that               they               had               been               given               a               taste               of               what               it               was               like               to               be               free               and               have               some               power.

This               Pandora's               Box,               once               opened,               could               never               again               be               fully               shut.[iv]               Given               this               chain               of               events,               Southern               states               used               whatever               means               necessary               to               politically               and               culturally               justify               the               consolidation               of               white               power.
               The               Lost               Cause               -               Background               and               Early               Roots
               Cultural               differences               are               a               major               focus               of               modern               and               post-modern               historians               today.

A               classic               case               is               the               point               of               view               taken               by               both               the               victor               and               the               vanquished               in               the               titles               used               for               the               conflict.

During               the               war               the               North               called               it               the               "Civil               War"               or               the               "Insurrection",               or               perhaps               most               commonly               just               the               "Rebellion".

The               South               called               it               the               "War",               or               sometimes               the               "War               for               Southern               Independence".[v]               After               the               war,               the               "Civil               War"               was               still               the               most               used               nomenclature               both               North               and               South,               but               an               alternative               story               steeped               within               pre-war               politics               kept               popping               up               with               Confederate               veterans               and               their               children.

The               idea               was               the               "Civil               War"               was               a               misnomer               because               the               South               fought               only               for               itself,               not               for               control               of               the               whole               nation,               and               in               fact               upon               secession,               was               a               sovereign               nation               -               so               how               could               the               war               be               a               Civil               War?

And               so,               from               the               continued               pollination               of               that               political               stance               bloomed               the               titles               "War               Between               the               States"               and               the               "War               of               Northern               Aggression"               which               have               been               used               extensively               in               the               South               and               elsewhere               up               until               this               very               day.
               The               Cultural               and               Historical               Norms
               There               were               competing               visions               of               what               constituted               the               "good"               or               "ideal"               societal               structure               in               pre-Civil               War               American               society.

Broadly               brushed,               the               Southern               vision               of               a               rural               agricultural               society               ruled               benignly               by               an               elite,               sporting               and               paternal               class               clashed               with               the               Northern               urban,               industrial,               and               unabashed               capitalist               meritocracy.

The               South               professed               to               be               fighting               for               self-government               and               the               protection               of               private               property               (i.e.

slaves).

The               underlying               assumption               was               that               this               model               was               inextricably               linked               to               the               economic               strength               of               the               South.
               The               North               wanted               to               preserve               the               Union               as               constituted               after               the               revolution               of               1776.

They               feared               that               recognizing               the               right               of               secession               would               undermine               the               whole               concept               of               a               government               based               on               majority               rule,               constitutional               procedures,               and               democratic               elections.

So               they               were               both               fighting               for               their               concept               of               liberty               and               union.

The               Northern               version               "won",               and               economically               the               free-labor,               competitive               model               prevailed               --               much               to               the               consternation               of               the               South               and               many               modern               southern               historians               (for               instance               Shelby               Foote's               comments               as               seen               in               Ken               Burns'               film               Civil               War)               over               the               years,               leading               right               up               to               the               present.
               Just               as               there               were               two               economic               and               cultural               identities,               there               were               also               two               competing               histories               of               the               Civil               War.

The               first               is               based               on               historical               fact,               or               what               actually               happened.

Here               we               run               into               difficulty               already,               because               for               many               historians               this               was               the               sole               purveyance               of               the               Northern               or               perhaps               "Federal"               version.

It               encompasses               geo-political               and               military               history               in               particular,               with               secondary               emphasis               on               the               abolition               of               slavery               as               moral               compass.
               The               second               historical               study               is               a               broad               body               of               myth               and               oral               history               combined               with               substantial               historical               fact               called               the               "Southern               Interpretation".

Eventually               codified               and               championed               as               the               "Lost               Cause",               it               has               become               American               legend               internationally               in               both               literature               and               film.

In               fact,               in               many               ways               the               South               can               be               said               to               have               won               the               war               through               the               power               of               the               pen.

Southern               historians               and               writers               created               a               mythic               Old               South               which               had               never               completely               existed               and               romantically               glorified               the               war               as               fought               by               Southern               boys               who               were               more               principled               and               gallant               than               their               adversaries.

The               popular               history               of               the               Reconstruction               period               in               the               South               was               shaped               by               newspapers               and               books               that               sought               to               salvage               honor               from               defeat.

It               was               a               badly               needed               social               rationalization               on               an               appropriately               grand               scale.
               The               Lost               Cause
               Mackubin               Thomas               Owens               wrote               in               a               review               of               two               recent               Civil               War               books               about               the               continued               power               of               the               Lost               Cause               and               its               origins.

He               stated               that               this               interpretation               is               firstly               "political,               insisting               that               the               cause               of               the               war               was               not               slavery               but               the               oppressive               power               of               the               central               government,               which               longed               to               tyrannize               over               the               Southern               states.

The               South               desired               merely               to               exercise               its               constitutional               right               to               secede,               but               was               thwarted               by               a               power-hungry               Lincoln."[vi]               He               described               the               second               Lost               Cause               interpretation               as               the               noble               military               struggle               of               better               men               who               became               overwhelmed               by               superior               forces.

It               is               not               surprising               that               both               during               and               after               the               war               the               Confederacy               was               compared               with               the               epic               Scottish               lost               cause.

Robert               E.

Lee               was               often               compared               to               Robert               the               Bruce               in               the               Southern               press               and               it               was               often               noted               that               it               was               no               mistake               that               the               Confederate               flag               had               the               blue               St.

Andrew's               cross               integral               to               its               pattern.[vii]
               Post-war               southerners               held               two               broad               views.

The               first               was               a               very               real               sense               that               they               had               a               profoundly               distinctive               culture               that               had               not               been               completely               destroyed.

The               second               was               a               lingering               hatred               toward               the               North,               which               gradually               receded               in               overt               vitriol               and               took               on               new               aliases               as               the               years               passed.

At               the               time               however               it               was               quite               bitter               and               very               real.

In               his               outstanding               oral               history               book,               The               Private               Civil               War,               Randall               C.

Jimerson               used               the               Southern               epistolary               record               to               outline               the               truly               deep               divisions               held               during               and               immediately               after               the               war.

Common               feelings               of               the               time               was               written               by               a               Confederate               widow               Fanny               Andrews:               "I               used               to               have               some               Christian               feeling               towards               the               Yankees,               but               now               that               they               have               invaded               our               country               and               killed               so               many               of               our               men               and               desecrated               so               many               homes,               I               can't               believe               that               when               Christ               said               'Love               your               enemies'               he               meant               Yankees."[viii]
               The               Legend               Grows:               19th               Century               Historiography
               In               the               Anatomy               of               the               Myth,               Alan               T.

Nolan               advances               the               main               aspects               of               the               Legend               as               it               was               disseminated               in               the               South.

The               first               was               downplaying               slavery,               proclaiming               that               it               was               not               the               primary               sectional               issue.

Economic               independence,               freedom               from               tariffs,               states               rights               -               anything               at               all               was               trotted               out               to               trivialize               slavery.

A               corollary               was               that               the               abolitionists               were               provocateurs               "who               manufactured               a               disagreement               between               the               sections               that               was               of               little               or               no               interest               to               the               people".[ix]               Another               idea               was               that               the               South               would               have               eventually               given               up               their               slaves               on               their               own               which               then               segued               into               the               perception               of               Blacks               as               generally               contented,               faithful               slaves               who               were               treated               well.

The               "cultural"               differences               between               North               and               South               were               exploited               using               mythic               arguments               revolving               around               chivalry               and               Normans               versus               the               Anglo-Saxons.[x]
               Predictably,               there               was               a               need               for               scapegoats               to               explain               the               military               defeat.

The               men               that               stabbed               the               Confederacy               in               the               back               were               vilified,               but               none               more               than               Gen.

Longstreet               who               was               eventually               to               take               the               full               blame               in               the               mind               of               the               public               for               the               defeat               at               Gettysburg.[xi]               The               home               front               was               idealized               and               so               too               were               the               leaders               (with               the               exception               of               Confederate               President               Jefferson               Davis,               who               was               viewed               as               too               politically               polarizing).

This               hero               worship               culminated               in               the               deification               of               Robert               E.

Lee.
               The               postwar               rise               of               the               "Confederate               revitalization               movement"               was               first               systematically               prosecuted               by               a               coalition               of               Virginia               organizations               such               as               the               United               Confederate               Veterans,               the               United               Daughters               of               the               Confederacy               and               the               Southern               Historical               Society,               starting               in               the               1870's.

The               spur               for               this               deep               desire               to               "set               the               record               straight"               was               the               death               of               Robert               E.

Lee               in               1870.

The               Virginians               systematically               attempted               to               define               and               exploit               the               Confederate               tradition.[xii]
               A               central               figure               in               this               movement               was               former               Confederate               General               Jubal               Early.

"While               not               tied               closely               to               the               planter               class,               the               leaders               of               this               movement               came               from               the               prewar               southern               elite               and               from               among               the               leaders               of               the               Confederacy.

They               wrote               much               history               that               influenced               the               South's               interpretation               of               the               war."[xiii]               Various               magazines               and               particularly               the               Southern               Historical               Society               Papers,               (managed               by               Early)               defended               almost               every               aspect               of               Confederate               behavior               and               began               the               codification               of               the               Lost               Cause.

Yet               the               Virginians               were               not               a               resounding               public               success               at               that               time.

"That               they               failed               to               gain               widespread               support               must               have               resulted               from               the               majority               of               southerner's               rejecting               their               use               of               the               Confederate               past.

Most               southerners               did               not               wish               to               keep               alive               the               passions               of               the               war               by               re-fighting               its               battles               and               issues."[xiv]               Nonetheless,               the               torch               continued               to               be               carried               -               particularly               by               the               United               Daughters               of               the               Confederacy               through               its               publications,               most               notably               through               Confederate               Veteran               Magazine               founded               and               edited               by               Sumner               A.

Cunningham.
               Some               historians               date               the               Lost               Cause               to               these               "Virginian"               undercurrents               in               the               antebellum               South.

In               fact,               the               term               was               coined               very               early               on               by               the               first               great               Southern               historian               on               the               war,               Edward               Pollard,               in               two               books,               starting               immediately               after               the               War               with               The               Lost               Cause               in               1865.

There               were               some               elements               of               the               Southern               Interpretation               in               his               work,               most               notably               that               slavery               was               "...one               of               the               mildest               and               most               beneficent               systems               of               servitude               in               the               world".[xv]               But               he               cannot               be               seen               as               anything               more               than               a               precursor               as               the               full               codification               was               promulgated               much               later.
               C.

Vann               Woodward               traces               the               origins               of               the               Lost               Cause               in               1951's               Origins               of               the               New               South:               "...there               developed               a               cult               of               archaism,               a               nostalgic               vision               of               the               past.

One               of               the               most               significant               inventions               of               the               New               South               was               the               'Old               South'               -               a               new               idea               in               the               eighties               and               a               legend               of               incalculable               potentialities."               This               "cult               of               archaism"               propped               up               a               demoralized               populace.[xvi]               There               is               also               much               confusion               among               historians               on               what               the               "New               South"               actually               was.

The               term               implies               that               the               Old               South               needed               conversion               and               modernization.

The               tension               caused               by               this               persists               in               historical               texts.

Whatever               the               arguments,               at               its               base               it               can               be               seen               that               a               rapidly               changing               economic               system               meant               acceptance               of               new               commercial               values               not               in               keeping               with               traditional,               key               elements               of               Southern               identity               and               long-held               value               structures.
               Most               historians               do               agree               with               Woodward's               timeline               of               the               late               1880's               as               the               start               of               "extreme               enthusiasm"               in               Confederate               activities.

This               Victorian               period               saw               a               massive               expansion               of               fraternal               organizations               both               north               and               south               such               as               the               rise               of               the               Grand               Army               of               the               Republic,               the               huge               Union               veterans               society.
               Foster               argues               that               public               manifestations               such               as               the               building               of               monuments               and               the               adoration               for               Robert               E.

Lee               as               a               hero-god               cemented               the               Lost               Cause               in               the               minds               of               the               populace               only               in               the               1890's,               when               the               Southern               interpretation               of               the               war               became               more               codified.[xvii]
               Further               Codification
               In               the               last               decades               of               the               19th               century,               things               began               to               change               as               a               new               group               of               professional               southern               historians               began               to               teach               at               southern               universities               at               the               turn               of               the               century.

Although               they               did               not               challenge               the               main               points               of               the               Lost               Cause;               "a               few               historians               rejoiced...over               the               abolition               of               slavery,               and               went               further               in               labeling               its               demise               an               advance               in               morality               and               a               step               toward               progress.

Yet               few               of               them               actively               condemned               slavery..."[xviii]
               Around               one               hundred               years               ago               consensus               appeared               among               southern               historians               that               perhaps               the               Confederate               Lost               Cause               was               not               generally               separatist,               but               an               attempt               at               "sectional               reconciliation"               within               a               mind-set               making               the               broader               reunification               of               the               United               States               seem               more               of               a               federation.

This               one               idea               more               than               anything               else               allowed               for               grudging               acceptance               and               in               some               cases               out               and               out               respect               shown               for               "positive               aspects"               of               southern               culture               and               the               Lost               Cause.

With               a               structure               in               place               to               allow               Northern               acquiescence,               the               Lost               Cause               would               soon               be               cast               in               stone               nationally.
               Edward               L.

Ayers               in               his               brilliant               1992               follow-up               to               Woodward,               The               Promise               of               the               New               South,               took               this               thesis               of               nationalization               of               the               Lost               Cause               a               bit               further               by               adding:               "The               Lost               Cause               was               not               simple               evidence               of               Southern               distinctiveness,               Southern               intransigence,               but               was               also               ironic               evidence               that               the               South               marched               in               step               with               the               rest               of               the               country."[xix]               What               Ayers               saw               was               the               prevailing               national               predilection               toward               fraternal               organizations               and               social               clubs,               (i.e.

the               "statue               craze"               of               the               period)               and               the               writers               of               fiction               who               sought               to               promote               a               genteel               regional               differentiation               in               both               the               North               and               the               South.
               Woodward               and               Ayers               were               pioneers,               but               the               writers               of               historical               synthesis               would               not               be               complete               without               Eric               Foner.

Reconstruction               was               published               in               1988               and               in               it               Professor               Foner               talked               about               the               social               and               political               undercurrents               moving               within               America               at               that               time               and               described               their               effect               on               the               actions               of               the               major               political               players               and               the               various               classes               and               races.

Foner               perceptively               identifies               and               provides               us               with               an               excellent               account               of               one               of               the               premier               re-writings               of               the               Civil               War               and               Reconstruction               by               historians.

Under               the               guidance               of               William               J.

Dunning               at               Columbia,               Southern               scholars               created               the               Dunning               School               at               the               turn               of               the               century,               which               "to               its               everlasting               shame"               helped               to               institutionalize               the               Southern               subjugation               of               Blacks               by               co-opting               the               Lost               Cause               historical               interpretation.
               The               main               components               of               the               argument               were               that               blacks               were               essentially               children               who               were               not               capable               of               taking               advantage               of,               or               appreciating,               the               freedom               that               the               Northern               victory               had               given               them.

The               North               was               terribly               na�ve               in               granting               suffrage,               for               "...a               black               skin               means               membership               in               a               race               of               men               which               has               never               of               itself               succeeded               in               subjecting               passion               to               reason,               has               never,               therefore,               created               any               civilization               of               any               kind.'               No               political               order               could               survive               in               the               South               unless               founded               on               the               principles               of               racial               inequality".[xx]
               The               Dunning               School               shaped               national               historiography               on               college               campuses,               and               in               doing               so               helped               to               legitimize               the               romance               of               the               "Old               South"               in               the               media.

Dunning               was               born               in               New               Jersey               in               1857               and               although               a               Northerner,               was               influential               for               putting               together               a               group               of               like-minded               historians               at               Columbia               University.

These               historians               fanned               out               and               promulgated               in               state-by-state               studies               in               the               Southern               states               the               pernicious               thesis.
               The               argument               boiled               down               to               post-war               Congressional               interference               by               the               Radical               Republicans               (a               block               of               Northern               Congressmen               and               Senators               actively               in               favor               of               abolition)               who               sought               to               revolutionize               race               relations               in               the               South               through               Reconstruction.

Reconstruction               was               categorized               as               a               national               disaster               which               was               brought               to               an               end               by               Southern               "redemption"               of               their               political               structures               and               subsequent               white               supremacy               starting               in               1877.

"It               was               Dunning,               who               for               all               his               scholarship,               perpetuated               and               reinforced               the               caricature               of               'carpetbaggers'               from               the               North,               of               'scalawag'               collaborators               from               the               South,               and               of               ignorant               blacks               who               all               came               together               to               despoil               and               exploit               the               South."[xxi]               Dunning               was               elected               president               of               the               American               Historical               Association               in               1913               at               the               same               time               that               Woodrow               Wilson               (a               Southerner)               became               President.

This               unabashed               propagandist               history               was               not               without               some               truth,               or               it               would               not               have               been               taken               seriously,               but               suddenly               the               South               was               "winning               for               losing".
               The               Dunning               School's               teachings               greased               the               skids               for               such               nationally               screened               Lost               Cause               interpretations               as               D.W.

Griffith's               film               Birth               of               a               Nation,               which               was               sourced               from               Thomas               Dixon's               The               Clansman:               an               Historical               Romance               of               the               Ku               Klux               Klan               (1905),               and               was               screened               in               the               White               House               for               Woodrow               Wilson.

The               Clansmen               tells               the               apocryphal               story               of               white               resistance               to               the               tyrannical               North.

Northerners               are               Yankee               capitalists               and               carpetbaggers               while               officials               of               Reconstruction               are               perhaps               well-intentioned               but               misguided.

The               Ku               Klux               Klan               is               portrayed               as               the               heroic               and               essential               agency               of               southern               deliverance               from               the               scourge               of               Reconstruction.

There               is               a               clear               line               of               paternity               that               exists               in               cinema               and               literary               fiction               all               the               way               up               to               and               way               beyond               the               depiction               of               the               O'Hara               family's               life               at               Tara               in               Gone               with               the               Wind.

How               many               more               people               saw               that               film               than               read               a               single               scholarly               piece               on               the               war?

Public               consciousness               was               gelling               and               buying               into               the               myth.
               Eric               Foner               posited               that               "Only               in               the               family               traditions               and               collective               folk               memories               of               the               Black               community               did               a               different               version               of               Reconstruction               survive".[xxii]               This               is               not               quite               accurate,               for               there               were               a               few               people,               some               of               whom               were               historians,               laboring               to               overturn               this               structure.

For               instance,               Frederick               Douglass               worked               tirelessly               in               the               post-war               decades               to               combat               what               he               perceived               to               be               a               "...Northern               complicity               in               spreading               the               Lost               Cause               arguments"[xxiii].

Another               man               who               stood               out               from               the               crowd               was               W.E.B.

Du               Bois.

Born               in               Massachusetts               in               1868,               Du               Bois               played               a               major               role               in               the               founding               of               the               NAACP,               and               trained               as               a               Marxist,               his               most               influential               work,               Black               Reconstruction               in               America:               1860               -               80,               sought               to               place               the               black               race               as               a               major               participant               in               the               Civil               War,               a               people               actively               seeking               their               freedom,               and               above               all               that               slavery               was               indeed               the               cause               of               the               war.[xxiv]               Du               Bois'               Marxist               bias               and               focus               on               class               relations               relegated               him               to               secondary               status               in               his               lifetime,               but               he               heavily               influenced               the               revisionists               a               generation               later.
               The               Revisionists:               The               Road               to               Historical               Clarity
               Civil               War               revisionist               historians               are               credited               with               confronting               and               subsequently               debunking               the               Lost               Cause.

It               can               be               forcefully               and               successfully               argued               that               the               South               finally               lost               the               Civil               War               in               the               1960's               when               the               bulk               of               the               major               civil               rights               acts               finally               passed               through               Congress               and               were               signed               into               law.

Kenneth               M.

Stampp               is               one               of               the               most               often               quoted               of               these               revisionists.

His               first               important               book               was               his               Peculiar               Institution               of               1957.

It               was               the               first               major               look               at               slavery               in               over               30               years               "and               for               the               first               time               depicted               that               institution               as               almost               wholly               cruel               and               malign".[xxv]               Stampp's               The               Era               of               Reconstruction:               1865-1877               came               out               in               1965.

It               is               a               summary               of               the               arguments               of               the               revisionists               and               has               great               value               for               historians.

This               historian,               along               with               Daniel               Moynihan               of               Harvard               and               Stanly               Elkins,               were               some               of               the               cultural               shapers               of               President               Lyndon               Johnson's               Great               Society.

There               were               historical               divisions               and               teething               problems               to               be               sure,               as               outraged               black               nationalist               historians               saw               their               turf               being               trod               upon               by               white               historians.

In               fact,               many               historians               applauded               the               new               diversity               of               thought               while               deploring               the               lack               of               collegiality.

In               1969,               the               icon               of               American               history,               C.

Vann               Woodward               made               his               presidential               address               to               the               Association               of               American               Historians.

He               called               it               "Clio               with               Soul",               and               he               called               for               racial               calm               and               mutual               toleration               in               the               study               of               history.
               In               fact,               forty               years               after               Origins,               Woodward               edited               Mary               Chesnut's               famous               Confederate               Girl's               Diary.

It               was               a               stunning               repudiation               of               the               Lost               Cause               and               the               methods               of               its               promulgation.

A               supposed               autobiography,               the               Diary               claims               to               tell               the               inside               story               of               the               Confederacy               and               to               show               what               life               was               like               in               antebellum               South               Carolina               during               the               war.

For               decades               the               book               was               critically               accepted               as               a               contemporary               reflection               of               one               Southern               woman's               thoughts               on               the               war               and               the               reasons               for               its               conduct.

Woodward               successfully               demonstrated               that               Chesnut               substantially               modified               her               text               almost               twenty               years               after               the               war               ended               with               the               object               of               writing               a               novel               which               would               promote               the               myths               of               reconstruction               and               the               principled               war               fought               by               gallant               men               in               defense               of               Southern               sovereignty.[xxvi]
               Which               "Myth"               to               Debunk               in               a               Post-Revisionist               World?
               Recent               mainstream               scholarship               seems               at               last               to               have               acknowledged               the               role               of               slavery               in               secession               and               war.

In               particular,               a               new               review               of               the               political               history               of               the               time               has               come               back               into               play.

Historians               find               that               pre-war               statements               by               Southern               leaders               acknowledged               slavery               as               the               main               issue,               and               note               that               the               Confederate               Constitution               then               established               it               as               a               right.

Human               freedom               was               indeed               at               stake,               just               as               the               radical               Republicans               had               seen               it.

It               was               a               fundamental               issue               in               the               South               to               preserve               the               freedom               of               slave               states               to               enforce               the               economic               and               social               power               of               their               "peculiar               institution".
               For               decades               the               states               rights               argument               had               been               trotted               out               as               the               most               effective               method               to               shunt               slavery               to               the               side               as               only               a               corollary               issue.

But               deep               down               that               single               issue               of               slavery               always               percolated               up               not               so               much               over               the               right               to               own               slaves               as               over               the               right               of               a               slaveholder               to               take               such               property               into               federal               territories.[xxvii]               "It               was               argued               with               considerable               justification               that               those               lands               prior               to               admission               to               statehood               had               belonged               to               all               the               people               of               the               United               States               and               that               therefore               to               exclude               slavery               in               them               constituted               a               de               facto               exclusion               of               slave               owners.

Exclude               the               slave               owners               from               residence               and               when               the               time               came               to               form               a               new               state,               there               would               be               no               chance               that               the               new               star               in               the               flag               would               countenance               slavery."[xxviii]               If               that               was               true,               and               it               seems               more               than               plausible,               the               slave-state               bloc               was               destined               for               less               and               less               federal               political               power.

That               being               the               case,               the               existing               slave               states               would               be               doomed               to               an               ever-smaller               voice               in               Washington.

It               was               after               all,               a               fight               for               the               preservation               of               political               power.
               The               South               would               not               have               given               up               the               institution               of               slavery               on               their               own,               and               in               fact               would               have               flouted               the               Constitution               and               Bill               of               Rights               to               try               to               keep               it               in               some               economic               (if               not               social)               form               or               another,               as               it               effectively               did               after               Reconstruction.[xxix]               Multiple               historians               have               added               the               caveat               that               this               was               the               reason               for               secession,               but               not               the               reason               why               Southerners               fought.

"Probably               ninety               percent               of               the               men               in               grey               had               never               owned               a               slave               and               had               no               personal               interest               in               either               slavery               or               the               shadow               issue               of               state's               rights."[xxx]               The               widespread               Northern               notion               that               rebels               were               fighting               for               slavery               was               just               not               true               -               it               was               truly               a               northern               myth.

What               they               were               fighting               for               was               the               preservation               of               their               invaded               homeland,               their               homes               and               families.[xxxi]
               Another               at               least               partial               fallacy               advanced               by               the               revisionists               (most               notably               Stampp               and               up               to               and               including               African               American               studies               schools)               has               been               that               slavery               was               implacably               cruel.

While               there               can               be               absolutely               no               defense               of               slavery               as               an               institution,               William               C.

Davis               in               the               Lost               Cause               brings               up               some               valid               points.

There               is               no               question               there               were               instances               of               sickening               abuse,               but               slaveholders               were               subject               to               statutory               laws               in               most               states               regarding               the               treatment               of               such               "property".

"Moreover,               social               stigma               attached               to               any               master               who               willfully               mistreated               his               slaves,               acting               as               a               stay               on               those               whose               brute               passions               were               susceptible               to               control."[xxxii]               He               then               goes               on               to               mention               that               slaves'               actions               hardly               merit               great               resentment               of               their               white               rulers.

There               was               no               widespread               rebellion               during               the               war,               and               in               fact               many               sought               to               fight               for               the               Confederate               cause,               while               others               bought               bonds               or               contributed               to               the               war               cause.[xxxiii]
               As               for               the               idea               that               the               South               was               a               sovereign               nation,               generally               it               is               felt               that               there               are               three               acid               tests               for               sovereignty:               a               separate               and               working               civil               government;               the               government               is               able               to               protect               its               territorial               integrity;               and               that               it               is               recognized               by               other               world               nations.

The               South               was               only               able               to               come               up               with               the               first.[xxxiv]
               Gary               W.

Gallagher               in               a               piece               published               in               2004               seeks               a               more               balanced               post-revisionist               approach               to               the               formulation               of               the               Lost               Cause.

In               fact,               he               breaks               with               his               fellow               revisionist               Alan               T.

Nolan               on               a               number               of               issues.

His               opening               salvo:               "Is               it               possible               that               arguments               put               forward               to               manage               the               memory               of               the               Confederacy's               war               be               rooted               in               fact?"               [xxxv]               He               then               notes               that               if               we               search               for               such               evidence,               are               we               diluting               the               insidiousness               of               denying               the               centrality               of               slavery               to               secession               and               war?

Gallagher               says               not               at               all,               and               looks               at               Gen.

Jubal               Early               and               his               attempts               to               build               up               Robert               E.

Lee.

Lee               himself               said               that               the               South               was               compelled               to               yield               in               the               face               of               "overwhelming               numbers               and               resources".[xxxvi]               Early               spent               much               time               in               creating               a               published               record               that               glorified               the               Confederate               Army               and               Lee               in               particular,               becoming               the               most               widely               accepted               scholar               of               Lee's               exploits.

He               is               often               credited               with               pinning               the               blame               put               on               Gen.

James               Longstreet               for               the               loss               at               Gettysburg.

General               Early               managed               to               "train               the               historical               focus               on               Lee               and               his               army               rather               than               on               Jefferson               Davis               and               the               Confederacy's               political               history".[xxxvii]               Gallagher               specifically               takes               on               Alan               T.

Nolan               and               others               of               the               revisionist               ilk.

He               states               that               they               fail               to               accept               that               much               of               what               Early               and               Lee               himself               argued               "was               grounded               in               wartime               fact,               and               accepted               by               both               sides               in               the               half-decade               immediately               following               Appamattox               -               that               is,               before               the               Lost               Cause               literature               began               to               appear               in               significant               bulk".[xxxviii]               Gallagher               offers               these               points:               firstly               Lee's               relative               importance               as               the               South's               most               important               military               figure               does               indeed               hold               up               to               historical               scrutiny,               and               cites               substantial               evidence;               and               secondly               as               to               Northern               human               and               material               advantages,               it               was               quite               well               known               on               both               sides,               and               Southern               armies               "remained               resolute,               at               least               until               the               autumn               of               1864,               in               their               determination               to               win               independence".[xxxix]               It               was               only               when               much               larger               and               better               supplied               Union               armies               were               sent               a               field               that               the               North               was               grudgingly               recognized               superior.
               These               and               other               elements               of               the               Lost               Cause               continue               to               circulate               freely               because               they               are               not               myths               at               all               -               they               are               facts.

Nonetheless,               this               cannot               be               interpreted               that               slavery               must               be               treated               separately               as               a               "special               situation".

The               logical               choice               to               authors               such               as               Gallagher,               Tulloch               and               Davis               is               to               look               at               each               part               of               the               Lost               Cause               interpretation               individually,               and               then               judge               it               on               its               own               merits,               and               then               apply               broader               synthetic               arguments.

This               has               some               genuinely               redeeming               (no               pun               intended)               factors.

It               will               provide               readers               of               American               history               with               a               much               better               thought               out               structure               for               understanding               the               regional               creation               of               public               memory               of               major               events.

It               also               points               to               a               new               willingness               to               point               out               instances               in               which               patently               partisan               authors               such               as               Early               advanced               arguments               that               were               actually               well               supported               by               evidence.

This               will               allow               enhanced               credence               to               "critiques               of               Lost               Cause               interpretations               based               on               blatant               twisting               of               the               historical               record".[xl]
               Yet               while               revisionist               historians               such               as               Alan               T.

Nolan               aggressively               attack               the               main               points               of               the               Lost               Cause               ideology,               arguing               that               it               was               an               intentional               effort               to               rationalize               secession               and               war               while               ignoring               real               historical               facts,               they               can               be               perhaps               too               adamant               about               what               constitutes               the               "reality"               of               history               in               positing               the               falseness               of               "myth".
               As               always               in               well-considered               and               synthesized               historical               works,               the               truth               lies               somewhere               in               the               grey               middle               of               most               arguments.

At               least               it               is               now               recognized               that               a               fair               and               unbiased               stance               would               be               to               study               the               "myth"               as               itself               having               a               history               that               needs               to               be               understood.

No               modern               historical               interpretation               of               the               Lost               Cause               can               overlook               the               deep,               culturally               held               belief               structures               of               the               South               both               before               and               after               the               war,               and               the               North's               gradual               acquiescence               in               their               dissemination.
               The               socio-political               legacy               of               the               Lost               Cause               is               somewhat               different.

On               the               one               hand               as               we               have               seen               that               it               in               part               facilitated               North-South               reunification.

The               South               saw               Northern               acceptance               of               the               myth               as               a               sign               of               respect               blurring               old               hurts               and               making               reunification               easier.

On               the               other               hand               we               have               the               systemic               and               generational               effect               on               African               Americans.

The               Lost               Cause               played               directly               into               nationally-held               racist               tendencies.

It               would               not               have               taken               hold               in               popular               media               and               the               collective               credence               if               this               were               not               so.

It               can               truly               be               said               that               in               the               case               of               the               Lost               Cause,               the               price               of               American               reunion               was               paid               for               by               the               immense               sacrifice               of               African               Americans.
               National               introspection               along               with               the               passage               of               time               can               be               nothing               but               positive.

Regardless               of               some               continued               infighting               among               historians,               the               good               news               is               that               there               is               a               waft               of               fresh               air               surrounding               professional               history               as               it               relates               to               Civil               War               studies.

That               fresh               air               is               being               fanned               by               unprecedented               public               interest               in               the               Civil               War.

We               have               only               to               look               to               the               extraordinary               success               of               James               M.

McPherson's               Battle               Cry               of               Freedom,               published               in               1988.

It               probably               dates               the               start               of               the               recent               upswing               in               popular               interest.

The               book               won               the               Pulitzer               Prize               and               sold               over               600,000               copies.

The               immense               public               interest               (witness               the               thousands               of               participants               in               dozens               of               Civil               War               battle               recreations               held               annually)               continues               to               both               push               and               pull               professional               historians               to               a               better               understanding               of               their               subject               that               along               with               the               passage               of               time               will               ensure               an               even               more               balanced               and               "historical"               clarity               in               the               future.
               Endnotes
               [i]               Alan               T.

Nolan               is               one               of               the               pre-eminent               modern               revisionist               Civil               War               historians               and               author               of               many               books               generally               considered               biased               on               the               "anti-Confederate"               side.

Nolan,               Alan               T.

"The               Anatomy               of               the               Myth"               in               Gallagher,               Gary               W.

&               Alan               T.

Nolan               (eds).

The               Myth               of               the               Lost               Cause               and               Civil               War               History.

(Bloomington:               Indiana               University               Press,               2000)               14               
               [ii]               William               Blair,               "Fifty               Years"               in               Civil               War               History.

The               Kent               State               University               Press,               (Dec.

2004,               vol.

50               no.

4)               364               
               [iii]               Blair,               364               
               [iv]               See               Eric               Foner               for               a               more               complete               discussion:               Eric               Foner,               Reconstruction:               America's               Unfinished               Revolution,               1863-1877.

(NewYork:               Harper               and               Row.

1988)               587-88               
               [v]               William               C.

Davis,               The               Lost               Cause,               Myths               and               Realities               of               the               Confederacy.

(Lawrence,               Kansas:               University               Press               of               Kansas,               1996)               178               
               [vi]               Mackubin               Thomas               Qwens.

"The               'Lost               Cause'               In               Retreat".

Reviews               of               The               Longest               Night:               A               Military               History               of               the               Civil               War,               by               David               J.

Eicher               and               Gettysburg:               A               Testing               of               Courage,               by               Noah               Andre               Trudeau.

Claremont               Review               of               Books.

Summer               2003.

http://www.claremont.org/writings/crb/summer2003/owens.html.

(accessed               April               20,               2005)               
               [vii]               Thomas               L.

Connelly               and               Barbara               L.

Bellows,               God               and               General               Longstreet:               The               Lost               Cause               and               the               Southern               Mind.

(Baton               Rouge:               Louisiana               State               University               Press,               1982)               4               
               [viii]               Jimerson               quotes               Fanny               Andrews               and               cites               her               "War-Time               Journal"               of               July               1865.

(pp.

148-149),               Randall               C.

Jimerson,               The               Private               Civil               War:               Popular               Thought               During               the               Sectional               Conflict.

(Baton               Rouge,               LA:               Louisiana               State               University               Press,               1988)               247               
               [ix]               Nolan               p.

16.

Nolan's               argument               cites               Thomas               Pressley's               views               in:               Americans               Interpret               Their               Civil               War,               (New               York:               Free               Press,               1965)               124,               132-33               
               [x]               Ibid.,               17               
               [xi]               For               an               excellent               in-depth               analysis               see               Jeffrey               Wert,               "James               Longstreet               and               the               Lost               Cause"               in               Gallagher               and               Nolan               (eds.)               127-146               
               [xii]Gaines               M.

Foster,               Ghosts               of               the               Confederacy:               Defeat,               the               Lost               Cause,               and               the               Emergence               of               the               New               South,               1865               to               1913.(New               York:               Oxford               University               Press,               1987)               47               
               [xiii]               Foster,               4-5               
               [xiv]               Ibid.,               62               
               [xv]               The               other               book:               E.A.

Pollard,               Southern               History               of               the               War.

(New               York:               C.B.

Richardson,               1866)               562               
               [xvi]               C.

Vann               Woodward,               Origins               of               the               New               South,               1877-1913.

(New               York:               LSU               Press.

1951.

2nd               Ed.

1971)               154-155               
               [xvii]               Foster,               49               
               [xviii]               Ibid.,               185               
               [xix]               Edward               L.

Ayers,               The               Promise               of               the               New               South,               Life               after               Reconstruction.

(New               York:               Oxford               University               Press.

1992)               334               
               [xx]               Foner               p.

610-11               Eric               Foner               cites               a               number               of               books               that               advanced               the               Dunning               School               thesis,               most               notably:               John               W.

Burgess;               Reconstruction               and               the               Constitution               1866-1876               (New               York,               1902)               44-45,               133,               244-46.;               and               William               A.

Dunning,               Essays               on               the               Civil               War               and               Reconstruction               (New               York,               1904)               384-85;               among               others.


               [xxi]               Hugh               Tulloch,               The               Debate               on               the               American               Civil               War               Era.

(Manchester,               UK:               Manchester               University               Press,               1999).

p.11.

Note               also               the               continuation               of               the               argument               on               pages               212-25.


               [xxii]               Foner,               610               
               [xxiii]               Gallagher,               2               
               [xxiv]               Tulloch,               221               
               [xxv]               Ibid.,               23               
               [xxvi]Mary               Boykin               Miller               Chesnut,               Mary               Chesnut's               Civil               War.

C.

Vann               Woodward               (ed.)               (New               Haven:               Yale               University               Press,               1981.)               
               [xxvii]               William               C.

Davis,               The               Lost               Cause,               Myths               and               Realities               of               the               Confederacy.

(Lawrence,               Kansas:               University               Press               of               Kansas,               1996)               182               
               [xxviii]               Davis,               183               
               [xxix]               Gary               W.

Gallagher,               "Shaping               Public               Memory               of               the               Civil               War:               Robert               E.

Lee,               Jubal               A.

Early               and               Douglas               Southall               Freeman"in               Alice               Fahs               and               Joan               Waugh,               (eds).

The               Memory               of               the               Civil               War               in               American               Culture.

(Chapel               Hill:               University               of               North               Carolina               Press,               2004.)               58               
               [xxx]               Davis,               190               
               [xxxi]               Davis,               183-91               and               Tulloch,               206-222.

For               brevity               I               have               distilled               these               two               good               examinations.

Woodward               and               Foner               are               also               useful               for               a               broader               discussion.


               [xxxii]               Davis,               185               
               [xxxiii]               Ibid.,185               citing               his               own               work,               William               Davis,               A               Government               of               Our               Own:               The               Making               of               the               Confederacy               (New               York,               NY:               1994)               161,               190,               290,               332.


               [xxxiv]               Davis,               179               
               [xxxv]               Gallagher,               in               Fahs               39.


               [xxxvi]               Gallagher               p.

40.

The               author               cites               Robert               E.

Lee.

The               Wartime               Papers               of               Robert               E.

Lee.

Clifford               Dowdey               and               Louis               H.

Manarin               (eds.)               (Boston:               Little,               Brown,               1961.)               934               
               [xxxvii]               Ibid.,               45               
               [xxxviii]               Ibid.,               51               
               [xxxix]               Ibid.,               55               
               [xl]               Gallagher,               58






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